Houston Graduate School of Theology

The Greeks

Submitted to:

Dr. Chuck Pitts

In partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the course:

Biblical Backgrounds

BI561B

November 13, 2001

Ydalith G. Rivera-Pérez

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Historical Origins and Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

The Ancients: The Minoans and the Myceneans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

The "Dark Age" and the Emergence of the City-States . . . . . . . . 2

The Age of Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The Birth of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

From Independent City-states to Unity: The Treat of the Persians. 5

GREEK CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

The Center of the Greek World: The Golden Age of Athens . . . . 6

Greek Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

GREEK CONTACT WITH JEWISH PEOPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Alexander the Great: The Building of a World Empire . . . . . . . . . 9

Ptolemaic and Seleucid Kingdoms in Palestine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Greek legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

WORK CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Introduction

Independent and self-reliant the Greeks left us a legacy that lives on. Greek ideals, philosophy, politics, art, and literature still influence our view of the world. Who were this ancient people? How was their culture shaped? How did they influence the Jews and in turn how did they influence Christianity?

Too independent to unite and plagued with internal conflicts and war, they managed to build an empire and spread their culture. Their empire was in turn swallowed by a bigger empire but their traditions live on.

Historical Origins and Brief History

The Ancients: The Minoans and the Myceneans

Early Greek cultures developed during the Bronze Age in both Crete (the Minoans) and mainland Greece (the Myceneans). The Myceneans conquered Crete and other Aegean islands when Minoan civilization was weakened by the broad destruction of a volcano eruption (Nardo 1994).

The Mycenean Age (1600-1200 B.C.) was one of centralized government, complex society with division of labor, and flourishing crafts (Fine 1983). It is during this period that the setting of myths, the development of poetry and song, and the basis for their religion was established (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, 4). Evidence for this early Greek way of life comes from inferences from archeological findings and oral tradition (Andrewes 1967). Heinrich Schliemann found what is believed to be the actual site of the city of Troy in Hissarlik, Turkey, and proof of the wealth of the ancient Myceneans evidenced by the graves covered in gold ornaments in the city of Mycenae. Other findings such as clay tablets that contained annual inventories support the notion of a centralized government (Fine 1983, 3; Stewart 1989).

The "Dark Age" and the Emergence of the City-States

Following this period of centralized government a period of societal disintegration, a "Dark Age", ensued in 1200-750 B.C. The decline of the centralized Mycenean civilization was followed by a period of smaller settlements that could be described in terms of tribal communities (Fine 1983). These households appeared to be mostly self-sufficient, had occasional trade among them, and were led by a "king" or a chieftain (Fine 1983, Nardo 1994).

The appearance of the polis, or city-states, appears to have been a gradual consequence of the increase size and organization of these regional households. These city-states were not large in size, mostly built on a hill, and strongly tied by traditions (Fine 1983, 49; Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988; Nardo 1994). They functioned as independent nations but were tied by a common language, religion, ancestral origins, and use of writing (Nardo 1994).

The Age of Colonization

The "Dark Age" slowly gave way to an era were trade, expansion, and change in the political institutions occurred. Increases in population made it impossible to divide the land among sons without losing influence and wealth therefore it became necessary to find land and resources outside mainland Greece (Fine 1983, 62).

Greek colonization was aimed westward towards Sicily and lower Italy, around the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Local kingdoms such as Lydia and Phoenicia halted Greek expansion on the east and south of the Mediterranean. In the subsequent two centuries (750-550 B.C.) as Greek colonies spread they maintained close ties to their cities of origin. Contact with peoples of other cultures enhanced their identification of themselves as Hellenes (Fine 1983). The Greeks, nevertheless, adapted into their culture significant advancements such as the alphabet from the Phoenicians, and innovations in art and weaponry from the orient (Boardman, Griffin and Murray 1988, Nardo 1994). In mainland Greece, poor in resources, the economy turned into specialized manufacture of goods. Artisans became wealthy and influential as trade increased and coinage was introduced around 600 B.C. (Fine 1983, 98).

The Birth of Democracy

Political institutions were shaped by this prosperity and in most city-states government by the rule of a "king" gave way to a ruling class of nobles, the aristoi, and later to rule by tyrants. Most of these tyrants were effective rulers that encouraged progress within their cities (Nardo 1994, 30). Citizens were further protected from the wealthy landowners by the codifying of the "unwritten laws" somewhere around 650 B.C. (Fine 1983, 100).

In Athens, Draco instituted uniform written laws around 621 B.C.. In 594 B.C. Solon continued this era of change when he introduced new laws that abolished the slavery of debtors and opened government to others outside the Eupatrids (Athenian nobility), if they had a minimum income (Fine 1983, Nardo 1994). Athens society at that time was divided in four classes based on land production and wealth: the pentacosiomedimni (top), the hippeis (second), the zeugitai (third), and the thetes. By 508 B.C. Athens had transitioned into a rule by the people (Fine 1983).

Not all cities transitioned in this fashion, for example, in Sparta kings continued to rule and their society was characterized by a conservative worldview. Their kings, nevertheless, were not completely out of the influence of the citizenry because their form of government also included an assembly and a board of ephors chosen from the citizenry (Fine 1983). Spartans society was a rigid class system that required its citizens a life of complete public service; and their income came from the land that had been granted by the state and was cultivated by helots (lower caste).

From Independent City-states to Unity: The Treat of the Persians

Persia conquered Greek cities along the coast of Asia Minor (the Ionians) around 546 B.C. and Thrace (mainland Greece) around 512 B.C. (Andrewes 1967, 60; Nardo 1994). By 499 B.C. the Ionian revolt was supported by the mainland city-states of Athens and Eretria. When around 490 B.C. the Persians attacked the Athenian hoplite soldiers (militiamen) won the battle against the vast and well-trained Persian army. The Persians wisely retreated; their invincibility challenged (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, Nardo 1994, 34). When in 480 B.C. King Xerxes attacked Greece he faced a united Greek army composed of men from many poleis. Although the Persians were able reach Athens, the Greeks inflicted such damage on the Persian fleet that Xerxes, in defeat, withdrew (Andrewes 1967, Nardo 1994). The Greeks halted the Persian conquest of Europe but their union of city-states was not long lived as friction between the two major states of Athens and Sparta appeared again (Fine 1983). This friction lead to the creation of the Delian League (Andrewes 1967, Nardo 1994).

Athens became very influential between 479 and 457 B.C. as the Delian league continued their aggression against the Persians (Fine 1983, Nardo 1994). Conflict between Athens and Sparta culminated in the First Peloponnesian War in 460-445 B.C. and the Second Peloponnesian War in 431-404 B.C. (Fine 1983, Nardo 2000).

Greek Culture

The Center of the Greek World: The Golden Age of Athens

The Athenian Empire formed from the creation of the Delian League was one of change and progress (Fine 1983). Athens became more democratic as time progressed. For example the archonship was opened to the third societal class in 457 B.C., and the poor were later enabled to participate in government when Pericles instituted a system of payment for government service (Fine 1983, Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, Nardo 1994). In contrast, democracy was not part of the nuclear family of classical Greece. Women were relegated to an inferior status; neither wives nor the hetairai (courtesans) were of any consequence in public or private life. They were not able to participate in government, have education, or own property (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, Jenkins 1986).

In this male dominated society, some significant societal institutions were the national festivals, the symposiums, and the gymnasium. National festivals were opportunities to enjoy drama, art, religion, and athletic competition. In the symposium (male drinking groups), the Athenian males took turns to drink and talk on a particular theme, finding themselves in intimate relationships with other men. In the gymnasium, they found a place to train for their festivals and further pursue their homosexual liaisons. It was near these gymnasiums

that philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle taught (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988).

Greek Philosophy

Greek philosophy transitioned from an explanation of the universe to a "personal search for inner enlightenment" (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, 229). Philosophers in the fifth century such as Heraclitus posited that that inner search leads to excellence and as a consequence leads to clarity that allows the individual to act appropriately towards others. Argumentation became a valued skill in the arena of politics and teachers went around cities instructing other Greeks in the art of rhetoric (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988). It was in the midst of this love for arguing, irrespective of the subject matter, that Socrates taught. He challenged the conventional and argued for self-awareness as the ultimate goal, and for knowledge as a source of goodness (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, Nardo 1994). Plato recorded this Socratic legacy which at time contemplates spiritual and religious matters. In Phaedo Socrates argues for a divine and immutable soul, in Euthyphro he rejects conventional religion in favor of a vision of true religion defined as the tending of one's soul, and in Protagoras he argues that virtue is knowledge therefore wrong is not done willingly (Grant 1989). Plato Theory of Forms combines the influence of Socrates and of Pythagorean ideas that saw the soul as a fallen deity able to realize

its deity after death. These Forms are perfect and unchanging realities distinct from material and changing phenomena (Grant 1989).

Greek Contact with the Jewish People

Alexander the Great: The Building of a World Empire

During the Peloponnesian Wars Sparta ended Athens supremacy. By 371 B.C. Thebes defeated Sparta, and Greece taxed from years of battles, was not prepared to defend itself from the northern threat of the Macedonians (Nardo 1994, Nardo 2000). The Macedonians initially under Philip and later under Alexander, his son and Aristotle's pupil, ruled Greece. The Macedonians reasoned that giving the Greeks the common enemy of Persia they would naturally unite.

Between 334 and 331 B.C. Alexander the Great proceeded to win victory after victory against the Persians. Soon his conquests extended to the Indus Valley, the Levant, and Egypt. However, by the age of thirty-three, in 323 B.C., he died leaving his empire to be divided amongst his generals into four kingdoms: the Seleucid, the Antigonid, the Ptolemaic, and the Hellenistic (Nardo 2000).

Ptolemaic and Seleucid Kingdoms in Palestine

After Alexander's death Palestine was ruled by Ptolemaic rulers from 301-200 B.C. and later by Seleucid rulers from 200-163 B.C..

From Alexandria, the Ptolemaic rulers levied heavy taxes and exerted rigid control over commerce but did not force Greek culture on the

people (Brisco 1998). In contrast, Seleucid rulers aggressively pursued the Hellenization of native people in their conquered territories.

The establishment of Greek cities, such as Alexandria, and the introduction of Greek institutions such as the gymnasium promoted Hellenistic culture. Within this cities individuals had to adopt Greek culture and language to be able to participate in the political life of the city. Greek language became the language of the educated and rich (Boardman, Griffin, and Murray 1988, Nardo 2000).

Jews were exposed to Greek culture gradually. Jews that had immigrated to Alexandria adopted the language and as a consequence the

Septuagint, Greek translation of their Scripture, was born (Nardo 2000, Brisco 1998). Jews in Palestine were under the authority of the high priest that had civil and religious authority and was entrusted with the collection of taxes. The priestly line was stripped of civil authority when Onias II refused to pay taxes. The Tobiad family rose to power under Ptolemy III (246-221 B.C.) as a more "Hellenized" alternative to government (Brisco 1998).

Ptolomeic rule gave way to Seleucid rule in 200 B.C. that was initially prosperous and peaceful. War with Rome left the Seleucid kingdom impoverished and led to instability and new taxes. In 175 B.C. Antiochus IV rose to power and began an aggressive campaign of "Hellenization" and unification in preparation for the invasion of Egypt.

In Jerusalem, the office of the high priest was pivotal to the Hellenization of the people. It was sold to Jason who established Greek festivals and Greek training for the Jewish youth in the gymnasia. In 172 B.C. this office became even more corrupted and political when Menelaus, not from priestly lineage, outbid Jason for the position. In the aftermath of Antiochus failure to capture Egypt, Jason attempted to regain the high priest office and this brought forth severe penalties from Antiochus rule. Jews were forbidden to observe rituals such as the Sabbath and circumcision. A pagan altar dedicated to Zeus was erected in the temple and the sacrifices of swine flesh were performed (Brisco 1998).

Some Jews resisted this "Hellenization" of their culture. After Judas Maccabeus’ father refused to offer sacrifice to Greeks and was killed, Judas and his brothers fought against the Seleucid forces with the help of other orthodox Jews. In 164 B.C. Judas recaptured and cleansed the temple and established again the sacrificial system instituted under Moses (Brisco 1998).

Antiochus religious oppression was overturned after his death in 163 B.C. but fighting continued until 142 B.C. when all taxes were exempted and Judea became an independent state. Judea remained independent until 63 B.C. when it fell into Roman hands.

Greek legacy

Christianity was born to a world influenced by Greek ideas and language. Greek became the language of the gospel. The inspired writers of the New Testament used literary forms common in Greek philosophy such as in the case of the Epistles and Acts (Jaeger 1965).

Outside Judea, the gospel was preached to educated Jews who spoke Greek, and later to their Gentile neighbors as seen in the book of Acts (Jaeger 1965). Early missionaries as recorded in Acts 6 were Greek speaking Jews and Greek Christians (Pfeiffer, Vos, and Rea 1999). The New Testament records Paul’s second and third missionary journeys that are associated with several Greek cities such as Neapolis, Philippi, Apolonia, Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Corinth, Berea, and Athens (Pfeiffer, Vos, and Rea 1999). Christian missionaries could approach Greeks and non-Greeks alike because Greek culture allowed a common ground and their emphasis on education encouraged exposure to new philosophical ideologies (Jaeger 1965).

Historical Origins and Brief History

Works Cited